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REVIEW OF NUCLEAR FORCE
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) August 20 , 2015 Historically, the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron by Chadwick (1932) led to the abandonment of electromagnetic laws of Coulomb and Ampere in favour of wrong theories which could not lead to the new structure of nucleons for the correct nuclear structure. So to avoid such fallacious ideas I was based on the discovered charged quarks by Gell-Mann and Zweig and I published my paper “ Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism” (2003) which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by Proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons Neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons In fact nucleons have sufficient charge distributions able to give a net attractive electromagnetic force able to overcome the electromagnetic repulsions. ( See my DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR FORCE AND STRUCTURE). In that paper I showed that in protons and neutrons there are charge distributions in nucleons due to 9 charged quarks in proton and to 12 charged quarks in neutron,, which are responsible for the nucleon-nucleon interactions under the applications of natural laws. They exist among 288 quarks in nucleons interacting according to the natural laws because the spinning quarks have the fundamental charges of laws. (See my NEW STRUCTURE OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS and my QUARK-QUARK INTERACTION). For the physics of the twentieth century theoretical explanations of atomic, molecular, and solid-state phenomena may present formidable mathematical difficulties, but it is at least true that the interactions between the constituent particles are well understood. For these systems the forces the particles exert on each other are of electromagnetic origin. However after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron the difficulty faced by the nuclear physicists was not merely that the nucleus is a many-body system like the atom or molecule, but worse yet , the fundamental laws governing nuclear interactions were far more complex than those of electromagnetic. Much was known about the details of this force from careful analysis of an enormous number of experiments. But this force could not be couched in a simple formalism , nor could it be expressed in a closed analytic form like the electromagnetic force. Hence, in the descriptions of nuclear properties one should rely on various models and no single model was completely adequate to reproduce all experimental data. The nuclear force ( nucleon–nucleon interaction) is the force between protons and neutrons, called nucleons. The nuclear force is responsible for binding protons and neutrons into atomic nuclei. Since protons have charge +1 e, they experience a Coulomb repulsion that tends to push them apart. Although neutron was assumed to be an uncharged particle in the simplest deuteron the proton-neutron attraction gives a binding energy of 2.2246 MeV. But in the heavier helium where two protons experience a Coulomb repulsion at short range the nuclear force between a proton and a neutron is sufficiently attractive as to overcome the electromagnetic repulsive force between protons. Such nuclear phenomena after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) led to the abandonment of natural electromagnetic laws in favour of wrong nuclear theories. Nevertheless today after the abandonment of natural laws many physicists believe incorrectly that quarks interact via the fallacious strong force by exchanging particles called gluons. In contrast to QED, where the photons exchanged are electrically neutral, the gluons of QCD also carry colour charges. To allow all the possible interactions between the three colours of quarks, there should be eight gluons, each of which generally carries a mixture of a colour and an anticolour of a different kind. In fact, in my paper “ Impact of Maxwell’s equation of displacement current on electromagnetic laws and comparison of the Maxwellian waves with our model of dipolic particles" presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) I showed that photons have mass of opposite charges, which provide both gravitational and electromagnetic properties. (See my PHOTON- MATTER INTERACTION). Although the experiments showed that massless particles cannot exist and energy cannot exist without mass ( see my ENERGY DOES NOT TURN TO MASS), it was believed incorrectly that massless gluons exist and carry colour forces. Under this condition today many physicists influenced by the wrong standard model continue to believe incorrectly that the charges of quarks cannot be able to give strong forces of natural laws. For example in the "Quark-WIKIPEDIA” one reads the following fallacious ideas which lead to complications: “According to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), quarks possess a property called color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled blue, green, and red. Each of them is complemented by an anticolor – antiblue, antigreen, and antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor. The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called strong interaction, which is mediated by force carrying particles known as gluons". According to the nuclear experiments the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons which form it. The difference in mass between bound and unbound nucleons is known as the mass defect. Energy is released when nuclei break apart, and it is this energy that used in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. As in the case of the hydrogen atom in the deuteron the binding electromagnetic energy of 2.2246 MeV turns into the E= hν of the generated photon while the mass defect of 2.2246 MeV/c2 turns into the photon mass m = hν /c2 in accordance with my discovery of the Photon-Matter Interaction. Unfortunately Einstein did much to retard the progress of nuclear physics because he believed incorrectly that the mass defect turns into the energy of photon. The enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions of the quantum mechanics (1926) is due to the fact that Bohr in the hydrogen atom used the electric force of the Coulomb law, while the ionization of the hydrogen of 13.6 eV is due to the weak interaction of the dipole photon which occurs in accordance with my discovery of the photon-matter interaction. In this case the energy hν of the photon turns into the electric energy of the proton-electron interaction, while the photon mass m =hν/c2 turns into the so-called mass defect.( See my BOHR AND SCHRODINGER REJECT EINSTEIN). In the same way we observe weak electromagnetic interactions of the well-established laws in the antineutrino absorption in nuclear phenomena. Since in the neutrino nature discovery the antineutrino of opposite charges behaves like a photon one concludes that it interacts with the charge of a quark under weak electromagnetic forces acting at a distance like the well known dipole-dipole interactions. In other words in both the photon and the antineutrino absorption one concludes that there exist weak electromagnetic interactions of forces acting at a distance. According to the experiments of the β decay the absorption of the antineutrino (ν-) by a proton (p) gives a neutron (n) and a positron (e+) as ν- + p = n + e+ After the new structure of protons and neutrons the above reaction can be written as ν- + + 4u + 5d = [ (92(dud) + 4u + 8d ] + e+ or ν- + (d-u-d) = (d-d-d) + e+ Here the (d-u-d) of the proton is characterized by d-u and u-d electric attractions acting at a distance. Also the d-d interaction gives a net attractive electromagnetic force because the spinning quarks have velocities faster than light where the magnetic attraction is stronger than the electric repulsion. (See my FASTER THAN LIGHT). However in the (d-d-d) of the neutron we observe magnetic attractions stronger than the electric repulsions but the net electromagnetic force is weaker than that of the (d-u-d) scheme. Under this condition the above reaction also can be written as ν- + u = d + e+ As in the case of the photon-mater interaction here we observe the conservation law of mass written in MeV/c2 as 1.8 + 2.4 = 3.69 + 0.51 . (See my UP AND DOWN QUARKS) In this reaction a proton (p) changes into a neutron (n) and a positron (e+) is emitted as the up quark ( u) changes into the down quark (d) . That is, the antineutrino interaction with the up quark under the application of the well-established laws leads to the transformation of the stable proton (p) into the unstable neutron ( n) like the excitation of an atom under the absorption of photon. The same photon absorption we also observe when we separate the deuteron (D) into its component protons (p) and neutrons (n) according to the relation γ + D = p + n . Historically Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg (1968) influenced by the wrong meson theory suggested the unification of the wrong weak interaction with electromagnetism into another hypothetical electroweak force which complicated more the problem. Since the unstable W and Z bosons are produced at high energy accelerators with significant masses they should interact with particles of high energy to justify the decay of unstable very massive quarks produced in the same high energies. For example the decay of top quark t can be written with the following reaction: t = W + b where b is the bottom quark. However at every day low energies as in the beta decay the use of such massive bosons leads to complications. It is indeed unfortunate that after the abandonment of the fundamental action at a distance of the well-established laws of nature Einstein’s fallacious massless quanta of fields used also in the so called theory of the quantum electrodynamics (QED). In QED the electromagnetic interactions at a distance of the well-establishes laws of charged particles should be described incorrectly through the emission and absorption of massless photons. Such a wrong massless photon is described in QED as the “force-carrier” particle that mediates or transmits the electromagnetic force by using the wrong concept of field introduced by Faraday in his explanation of the induction. Moreover after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) physicists abandoned the natural laws in favor of wrong theories like the meson theory of Yukawa (1935), the Electroweak Theory of Weinberg (1968), and the quantum chromodynamics of Gell-Mann (1973). So efforts were unsuccessful in the application of a gauge theory to the fallacious strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force, producing the wrong standard model of particle physics. Category:Fundamental physics concepts